By Ousseynou Ndoye[1], Mamadou Diakhité[2], Sheryl Quail[3], Meseret Shiferaw[4], Teko Nhlapo[5], Edna Kalima[6], Benjamin Akobundu[7], Diana Mawoko[8], Edith Maboumba[9]
‘’Humanity is using 1.6 times the amount of services that nature can provide’’ (UNEP, 2021)[i]
‘’Restoring degraded lands locks the carbon in the atmosphere in the soil. It also improves soil health, and increases the diversity of plants, animals and other species’’ (G20 Global Land Initiative)[ii].
1. INTRODUCTION
Climate change is a global phenomenon that affects the whole world. No continent is spared. Like the Covid19 pandemic, climate change does not consider the level of wealth of nations or the color of the skin of their populations or ownership of any technological advancement. Several major international meetings have been organized to discuss climate issues and tried to find lasting solutions.
In 2015, 195 member countries of the United Nations adopted a new global agreement called the Paris Agreement (COP 21) under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCCC). Developed countries, emerging countries and developing countries in Africa, Asia and Latin America have agreed to make commitments to reduce greenhouse gas emissions for the well-being of the planet and its people. At the African level, several initiatives have been undertaken by the African Union (AU), the African Development Bank (AfDB) and sub-regional organizations such as the Economic Community of West African States (ECOWAS), the Economic Community of Central African States (ECCAS), the Southern African Development Community (SADC) to mobilize the resources needed to increase the resilience capacities of African countries in order to promote sustainable development and guarantee the social, economic and political stability of the various countries.
In 2007, the African Union launched the Great Green Wall Initiative (GGWI) aimed at fighting against climate change and transforming millions of lives in the Sahel[iii]. Its ambition is to sequester 250 million tons of carbon and create 10 million green jobs by 2030[iv]. Moreover, the African Union Development Agency-New Partnership for African Development (AUDA-NEPAD) is implementing the African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative (AFR100) launched in December 2015 at COP21 in Paris. The main argument of this manuscript is that forest landscape restoration (FLR) and the AFR100 initiative contribute to combating climate and land use change in Africa because they address several challenges such as deforestation and land degradation; biodiversity loss; climate crisis; poverty; food insecurity; high level of unemployment for local communities including women and youth. A scientific article published in the journal Conservation Biology shows that FLR contributes to climate and biodiversity goals[v]. In addition, restoring degraded forests and lands represent a strategic and cost-effective option for meeting national and global climate and biodiversity goals[vi].
This manuscript aims to:
a) Discuss the paradox of climate change for African countries;
b) Provide a brief description of the African Forest Landscape Restoration Initiative (AFR100) and its links with ongoing regional and international initiatives.
c) Discuss few mitigation and adaptation actions drawing on the AFR100 approach which aims, to reduce, among others, the rate of deforestation and the negative impacts of climate change while improving food security and reducing poverty. The ultimate goal being to improve policies on climate and land use change in AFR100 member countries.
d) Discuss the impacts of Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) at local, national, regional and international levels.
2. THE PARADOX OF CLIMATE CHANGE AND ITS IMPACT ON AFRICAN COUNTRIES
The paradox of climate change is that the least industrialized countries such as African countries, which emit less greenhouse gases, are the most exposed and therefore the most vulnerable. According to the African Development Bank[vii] , every year Africa loses between 5% and 15% of its Gross Domestic Products (GDP) because of climate change. The effects of climate change are, among others, the irregularity of the seasons, excess heat, the rise in the level of the oceans leading to floods and coastal erosion, the increase in drought, the decline in agricultural productivity, the deterioration of the health of populations, the increase in greenhouse gases caused by deforestation and degradation due to human activities, the loss of biodiversity, the increase in food and nutritional insecurity for populations, disruption of the transport system and market supply (especially in flooded areas), and reduction of tourist activities.
It therefore appears that climate change affects several sectors such as agriculture, forests and the environment, urban planning and housing, water and sanitation, energy, health, transport, tourism, industry, economy and trade. This is why the active engagement and use of a multi-stakeholder and multi-sectoral approach is very appropriate for the fight against the effects of climate and land use change. Therefore, restoration under the AFR100 initiative is very appropriate in combating climate and land use change while improving the livelihoods of rural communities.
3. THE AFRICAN FOREST LANDSCAPE RESTORATION INITIATIVE (AFR100)
The AFR100 Initiative was launched in December 2015 to address the environmental, social and economic challenges that affect the sustainable management of natural resources in Africa. It is a Pan-African initiative implemented at the national level by 34 African countries and growing in collaboration with 39 technical partners and 13 financial partners. Its main objective is to restore 100 million hectares of degraded lands and forests by 2030. Currently the 34 countries have committed to restore 129.5 million hectares, which means that the initial commitment has been exceeded by 29.5 million hectares. Forest Landscape Restoration (FLR) is a process that restores ecosystem services and landscape functionality, boosts and stabilizes land use productivity, and enhances resilience to climate change through the restoration of degraded forests and lands (WRI, NEPAD, BMZ, World Bank, undated)[viii].
At the regional level, the AFR100 initiative contributes to the African Initiative of Resilient Landscapes (ARLI); the African Union Agenda 2063; the Action Plan for African Landscape (ALAP); the African Great Green Wall Initiative (GGWI). At the international level, the AFR100 initiative contributes to the Bonn Challenge; the Paris Agreement on Climate; the New York Declaration on Forests; the United Nations Decade on Ecosystem Restoration; the United Nations Convention to Combat Desertification (UNCCD) Land Degradation Neutrality (LDN); and the Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs), especially SDGs 1, 2, 3, 6, 8, 11, 12, 13, 15, 17.
The second phase of the AFR100 initiative (2022-2026) put a major emphasis on the acceleration of forest landscape restoration on the ground to help countries meet their pledges by 2030. That is why smallholder farmers, communities, minorities, marginalized groups, women and youth entrepreneurs and associations have a major role to play during this phase.
4. MITIGATION ACTIONS TO COMBAT CLIMATE AND LAND USE CHANGE THROUGH RESTORATION
The mitigation activities to combat climate and land use change aims to reduce greenhouse gas emissions. Indeed, since the industrial revolution, the greenhouse effect has been amplified by the release of large quantities of gas (carbon dioxide or CO2) into the atmosphere due to the massive use of fossil fuels such as oil, coal, natural gas; deforestation; landfilling; and certain environmentally destructive agricultural and industrial practices[ix]. To mitigate the effects of climate change, policies aimed at carbon sequestration and the long-term storage of carbon dioxide outside the atmosphere should be promoted. Reducing greenhouse gas emissions is one of the measures envisaged to achieve the commitments of the Paris Agreement on the climate[x]. The following actions are needed to strengthen the climate change mitigation programs in AFR100 countries in order to sequester more carbon:
a) Introducing trees with high absorption capacity of carbon dioxide
African countries members of the AFR100 initiative should explore the introduction of the imperial tree, the Paulownia (Pawlownia tomentosa) which can absorb 10 times more CO2 (carbon dioxide) than many trees. In addition, it cleans the air much faster. It is a fast growing tree native to China that is planted all over Asia and Australia[xi]. It should be noted, however, that all trees capture carbon dioxide, which is why the concept of growing trees must replace that of planting trees. The cultivation of trees includes the act of planting as well as the monitoring and management of all the steps downstream until maturation for the total success of the operation. Existing trees should also be maintained. Few trees with high carbon sequestration potential found in AFR100 countries are Rosewood (Dalbergia latifolia or Acacia excelsa), Moabi (Baillonella toxisperma), Bush mango (Irvingia gabonensis and Irvingia wombolu), Bubinga (Guibourtia tessmannii), Fraké (Terminalia superba), Iroko (Milicia excelsa), Azobe (Lophira alata), Njanssang (Ricinodendron heudelotii), Gum arabic (Acacia senegal), Desert date or Soumpe (Balanites aegyptiaca), Baobab (Adansonia digitata), Shea butter (Vitellaria paradoxa), and Moringa (Moringa oleifera). With the availability of all these trees in AFR100 countries, one wonders why Africa still has several climate challenges? In particular, AFR100 countries in the Sahel should get involved in massive planting of baobab, shea butter and moringa trees to accelerate the fight against climate change.
AFR100 technical partners like CIFOR-ICRAF are playing an important role in this direction by boosting the availability and access to high quality planting materials thereby contributing to the restoration of degraded forest and lands and improving food security and nutrition. For example, the CIFOR-ICRAF What to Plant Where in Ethiopia portal allows stakeholders to find suitable tree species and their best matching seed sources at any planting locations in Ethiopia[xii]. Developing similar portals in other AFR100 countries will be very beneficial for the AFR100 initiative.
b) The increase in the number of protected forests
The decisions of public authorities in AFR100 countries to increase the number of protected forests fit well into the strategy of mitigating and anticipating the effects of climate change. In Senegal, protected areas represent 26.39 percent of the total land area in 2022[xiii]. In Cameroon, protected areas represent 10.98 percent of total land area in 2022[xiv]. In Gabon, protected areas represent 22.44 percent of total land area in 2022[xv]. The increase in the number of protected forests at national level is achieved by discussing with all the actors concerned to get full appropriation and ownership by the populations. The Paulownia tree and other tree species (mentioned above) that have a very high carbon dioxide absorption capacity should be promoted in protected forests to create several carbon sinks in Africa.
c) Reforestation, tree cultivation in urban and semi-urban areas and the creation of green cities
Mayors and local authorities should be mobilized to support tree planting along the various roads and in public spaces in their constituencies as part of the promotion of urban and peri- urban forests and the creation of green cities. The relevant sectoral ministries should also be sensitized for tree planting along highways and certain roads that are not in the administrative domain of mayors and local authorities. Elementary schools, high schools, vocational schools and universities must be included. Campaigns should be organized using the media to raise awareness among rural and urban populations, including youth, on the importance of trees in the fight against climate change and the conservation of biodiversity. In Senegal, youth represent 76 percent of the population[xvi] which is an important demographic dividend to combat the negative effects of climate and land use change.
d) Restoration to increase soil fertility
Soil fertility has a positive effect on carbon sequestration. Promoting agroforestry activities by integrating nitrogen-fixing legumes into existing farming systems is a good approach to promote in AFR100 countries. Legumes such as Gum arabic (Acacia senegal), Caliandra (Caliandra colothyrsus), Leucaena (Leucaena leucocephala), Cadd (Acacia albida), and Neem (Azadirachta indica)[xvii] will increase soil fertility and carbon sequestration to combat climate change.
A GIZ project in the Far North Region of Cameroon has restored the fertility of degraded lands that were no longer productive, and which were abandoned by local communities or landscape actors. In collaboration with the Ministry of Forest and Wildlife (MINFOF) and the Ministry of Environment, Nature Protection and Sustainable Development (MINEPDED) of Cameroon, GIZ helped local local communities restore those unproductive lands in 2 years by using traditional technics and producing compost with organic manure mixed with Crotalaria retusa, Bracharia spp. and Mucuna pruriens. In addition, tree planting has been initiated through the project to enable local communities protect watersheds, get fuelwood for cocking and non-timber forest products such as Gum arabic (Acacia spp.), neem (Azadirachta indica) and cashew (Anacardium occidentale) to enhance soil fertility and increase their revenues. With the project, local communities valorize biomass for livestock feed instead of burning it as it was done in the past[xviii].
e) Sustainable Cocoa Farming
In Ghana, smallholder cocoa farmers are improving yields and mitigating climate change at the same time by developing sustainable cocoa value chains that reduce emission from deforestation and forest degradation across 6 million hectares using shade cocoa trees and by improving farming practices and land use decisions. With support from the World Bank’s Forest Carbon Partnership Facility (FCPF), Ghana is generating high quality, high integrity jurisdictional carbon credits to achieve its climate goals and get access to international carbon markets[xix].
5. ADAPTATION ACTIONS TO COMBAT CLIMATE AND LAND USE CHANGE THROUGH RESTORATION
Adaptation is any action to support and enhance the ability to resist to the negative impacts of climate change[xx]. Resilience to climate change makes it possible to cushion the climate shock and find opportunities for innovation and opening up new paths that increase the ability to adapt to these changes[xxi]. The following activities will strengthen the climate change adaptation activities in AFR100 countries:
a) Production of several varieties of seeds that are drought resistant while increasing agricultural yields
National research institutes in AFR100 countries should be more encouraged to develop new varieties of seeds that are resistant to climate change. These varieties should be multiplied and disseminated widely at national level to increase agricultural production and resilience, improve food security and reduce food imports. Drought tolerant crops are already produced in several AFR100 countries such as Kenya, Malawi, Zambia, Nigeria, Senegal, Niger, Sudan, South Africa, Namibia, Zimbabwe and Tanzania[xxii], to name a few.
b) Compliance with technical itineraries and the agricultural calendar
Compliance with sowing periods, fertilizer spreading and plowing helps to increase agricultural yields. It is unfortunate to note that agricultural extension has been reduced significantly in Africa as a result of Structural Adjustment Programs (SAP) imposed by the World Bank (WB) and the International Monetary Fund (IMF).
c) Diversification of Agricultural activities (agriculture, livestock, fishery and aquaculture, agroforestry, forestry, and floriculture) to increase resilience to climate change
Beyond the innovations made in agricultural production, livestock, fishery and aquaculture, rural communities should be encouraged, especially women and youth, to further diversify their sources of income by getting involved in the value chains of forest food products such as Sweet Detar or ditakh (Detarium senegalense), moringa (Moringa oleifera), baobab (Adansonia digitata), cashew (Anacardium occidental), maracuja or Passion fruit (Passiflora edulis) etc., and floriculture. The Forestry departments in AFR100 countries should produce at scale several varieties of seedlings which will be distributed and planted by rural communities. However, to ensure a high survival rate of the trees planted, the Forestry Departments should sign contracts with the rural communities for the maintenance and monitoring of the trees and in return, give them a commercial use right to market the fruits of the trees while ensuring the preservation of the trees themselves. Thus, rural communities will have the right to consume and market the fruits of the trees planted to meet their basic needs, which will motivate them more for the monitoring and maintenance of the trees and will increase their capacity of resilience. Such an activity will contribute to both mitigation and adaptation to climate change.
e) Digital innovation to protect women producers to climate risk
Innovation Norway, United Nations Capital Development Fund (UNCDF) and UN women support digital projects in Mali and Senegal to strengthen the resilience of women producers to disaster risk and climate change[xxiii].
6. PROJECTED IMPACTS OF FOREST LANDSCAPE RESTORATION AT LOCAL, NATIONAL, REGIONAL AND INTERNATIONAL LEVELS
61. Impacts at local, national and regional levels
At local, national and regional levels, the restoration of degraded forests and lands under the AFR100 initiative will achieve the following:
i) Increase in forest cover and carbon sequestration to combat climate change;
ii) Increase in biomass;
iii) Increase in biological diversity through enriching species diversity, faunal species. The Ministry of Environment, Sustainable Development and Ecological Transition (MEDDTE) of Senegal through the Senegalese Agency for Reforestation and the Great Green Wall (ASERGMV), has engaged in massive planting of date trees in Northern Senegal due to favorable climate conditions. Through this strategy the country will increase its biological diversity and economic well-being by reducing the imports of dates and the development of the national markets[xxiv]. In Senegal, dates are consumed in large quantity during the fasting period of Ramadan.
iv) Improvement in soil fertility [(see section 4, d) above], ecosystems and ecological functions of the forests;
v) Improvement in air and water quality;
vi) Reduction in dust and the health of populations, especially in the drylands of Africa;
vii) Increase in employment opportunities for rural communities by providing green jobs to women, youth and marginalized groups;
viii) Increase in incomes and prosperity in rural areas;
ix) Improvement in food security and nutrition;
x) Contribution to healthy diets;
xi) Reduction in gender inequality and more autonomy for women;
xii) Reduction in the discrimination against marginalized groups.
62. Impacts at international level
i) Reduction in global warming, flooding, droughts, forest fires;
ii) Increase in biological diversity, ecosystem structure, function and services;
iii) Improvement in population health and well-being;
iv) Increase in carbon sequestration, biomass and carbon trading.
7. CONCLUSIONS
Climate change is a real phenomenon that affects the planet and will continue to threaten all continents and all regions of the world. For this reason, African countries, members of the AFR100 initiative through the restoration of degraded forests and lands are developing an important capacity of anticipation by implementing mitigation and adaptation programs to fight against the global warming of the planet. Through its impacts at local, national, regional and global levels, the restoration of degraded forests and lands contributes to combating climate change, improving biological biodiversity, reducing poverty and improving the food and nutrition security of populations.
Therefore, the collaboration between the AFR100 initiative and all the regional and global initiatives mentioned in this manuscript must be strengthened in order to obtain a win-win partnership with tangible environmental, social and economic benefits to improve human well-being and the health of the planet.
END NOTES
[1] Ousseynou Ndoye, PhD
Agricultural and Forest Economist.
AFR100 Regional Coordinator for West and Central Africa.
[2] Mamadou Diakhité
Manager of the AFR100 Secretariat and Head of Climate Change & Environment and Sustainability (CC&ESD) Division, AUDA-NEPAD.
[3] Sheryl Quail, PhD
AFR100 Monitoring
[4] Meseret Shiferaw
AFR100 Regional Coordinator for East and Southern Africa.
[5] Teko Nhlapo
Communication Officer AUDA-NEPAD/AFR100 Secretariat
[6] Edna Kalima,
Gender specialist, AUDA-NEPAD/AFR100 Secretariat
[7] Benjamin Akobundu
AFR100 Lead, AUDA-NEPAD/AFR100 Secretariat
[8] Diana Mawoko
AFR100 Secretariat and World Resources Institute
[9] Edith Maboumba
AFR100 Secretariat
[i] United Nations Environment Programme (2021). Becoming #Generation Restoration: Ecosystem restoration for people, nature and climate. Nairobi.
[ii] https://www.linkedin.com/feed/update/urn:li:activity:7089877095127859200?utm_source=share&utm_medium=member_android
[iii] https://www.unccd.int/our-work/ggwi
[iv] https://www.unccd.int/our-work/ggwi
[v] https://phys.org/news/2023-08-degraded-forests-under-appreciated-climate-solution.html; Rayden, T., Jones, K.R., Austin, K., and Radachowsky, J. (2023). Improving climate and biodiversity outcomes through restoration of forest integrity. Conservation Biology, e14163, pp. 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.14163.
[vi] https://phys.org/news/2023-08-degraded-forests-under-appreciated-climate-solution.html; Rayden, T., Jones, K.R., Austin, K., and Radachowsky, J. (2023). Improving climate and biodiversity outcomes through restoration of forest integrity. Conservation Biology, e14163, pp. 1-11. https://doi.org/10.1111/cobi.14163.
[vii] https://www.senenews.com/actualites/lafrique-perd-chaque-an-15-de-son-pib-par-habitant-bad_417047.html
[viii] World Resources Institute (WRI), New Partnership for Africa’s Development (NEPAD), German Federal Ministry of Economic Cooperation Development (BMZ), and the World Bank (undated). African Forest Landscape Initiative, Overview.
[ix] http://www.environnement.gouv.qc.ca/air/questce-ges.htm.
[x] https://www.apc-paris.com/cop-21#:~:text=L’Accord%20de%20Paris%20qui,C%20d’ici%20%C3%A0%202100.
[xi] https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Paulownia_tomentosa.
[xii] CIFOR-ICRAF (2023). CIFOR-ICRAF Annual Report 2022 : Interconnected : Trees, people, planet. Bogor, Indonesia : Center for International Forestry Research (CIFOR) and Nairobi, Kenya : World Agroforestry Center (ICRAF), 20 pp.
[xiii] https://tradingeconomics.com/senegal/terrestrial-protected-areas-percent-of-total-land-area-wb-data.html
[xiv] https://tradingeconomics.com/cameroon/terrestrial-protected-areas-percent-of-total-land-area-wb-data.html
[xv] https://tradingeconomics.com/gabon/terrestrial-protected-areas-percent-of-total-land-area-wb-data.html
[xvi] http://french.xinhuanet.com/2021-04/22/c_139899321.htm
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[xviii] https://youtu.be/wIVNQzJNHJU
[xix] http://wrld.bg/hEHP50PgvQm
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[xxii] https://www.icrisat.org/farmers-in-tanzania-urged-to-embrace-drought-tolerant-crops/
[xxiii] https://www.uncdf.org/article/8299/protger-les-productrices-du-mali-et-du-sngal-face-aux-risques-climatiques-grce-aux-innovations-digitales
[xxiv] https://laviesenegalaise.com/implantation-de-dattiers-dans-le-nord-est-du-pays-aly-haidar-veut-que-le-senegal-produise-ses-propres-dattes/